Nature And Scope of Indian Philosophy

Vedic and Upanishadic World Views :

Rta – The Cosmic Order – The concept of rta ,as the expression of the law in activity or the law of becoming or transformation,is contained in the very root of the word : r. which means to move,to go.Hence rta is the mode whereby the unmanifest becomes the manifest transcendent

the actual,chaos the cosmos.

The Sanskrit word rta,admits a wide range of meanings,according to contexts:the cosmic harmony,the truth,the right or righteousness,the cosmic order or the ritual or rite that expresses the order.

Three fundamental aspects of the law of cosmic order are studied:

1.the law as it manifests in the universe and therefore nature,the cosmic aspect

2.the socio-ethical aspect which ,in the human context,can be translat-

ed as integrity-integration,truth at the human level being equivalent to

harmony at the universal level

3.the religio-sacrificial level which investigates the little understood

meaning of the one sacrifice with which the cosmic order is identified

-not only in the Vedic conception but in many of the religious traditions

of past ages.1

1- Miller,Jeanine, The Vision of Cosmic Order in the Vedas , 2

Rta is ,indeed,the most fundamental principles discovered by

Vedic seers.It is the principle of dynamics inherent in the eternal

statis of the Ultimate Being.It is owing to the inherence of this

Principle that Eternal condescends to pass through the passage of

time so as to lead to emergence of the sequential.Thus,it forms

the bridge between the eternal statis and the universal dynamics

According to Professor S P Singh ,”Rta,indeed,is the path by

treading which sacrifice gets performed---- Rta serves as the path

by going along which sacrifice gets enriched so as to get elevated

from the human to the divine.Thus,sacrifice itself is not Rta but its

fabric gets transformed by passing along the path of Rta.”2

It is from this essential status of it in Absolute that not only Rta

makes its emergence so as to bring about the process of the

world but also leaves behind it the path on which the creatures of

the process may stage their travail so as to reach the grand destin

ation.

2. Singh,S P – Vedic Symbolism, p. 227

The Centrality of the Institution of Sacrifice :-

“Yajna – (the sacrifice) ,the worship ,the setting up of a communi-

cation between the within and the without and thereby the maki

ng ‘holy’,so that the expanding without may be worthy of the wit-

hin,may become a perfect mirror;hence the sacrifice in establishin

g a circuit of give and take,a balance,is harmony.”3

That which is given is in one sense a deprivation, sacrifice,yet it is a restoration creating a balance,for there can be no giving without a pre

Vious receiving or taking:the rite of sacrifice in its inner structure is Rta,

The eternal balance ,the universal order,the divine harmony.

In the famous hyme of the primeval sacrifice of Celestial Man- Arc

hetypal Man in His essential divinity called purusha sukta,the divine ess

ence is sacrificed that the many may be.Thus sacrifice doesn’t happen on the micro level only but on the macro level as well.

3-Miller,Jeanine – The Vision of Cosmic Order in the Vedas,p. – 11

Mainly there are two types of yajnas:

1. Shraut

2. Smart

Yajnas propounded by shruti are called shraut and those propounded by smriti are called smart.Both have different injunctions.The main diff

erence between the two is – regarding the provision of the sacrifice of

animal.According to shraut provision,it is necessary to sacrifice an anim

al,but according to smart provision it is strictly prohibited.

Shraut yajnas: According to Aitereya Brahmana there are five types of yajnas –

1. Agnihotra

2. Dashpurnmas

3. Chturmas

4. Pashu

5. Soma

According to Gautama Sutra there are three types of yajnas:-

1.Pakyajna

2.Haviryajna

3.Soma yajna

There are seven types of divisions of all these three:

Pak yajna:

1.Aupasan hotra

2.Vaishva deva

3.Parvan

4.Ashataka

5.Masika shraddha

6.Shravana

7.Shulagava

Haviryajna:

1.Agnihotra

2.Dashpurnamaasa

3.Aagrayan

4.Chaturmaas

5.Niruddha pashubandh

6. Sravtamani

7.Pindapitri yajna

Soma Yajna:

1.Agnishtoma

2.Antyognishtoma

3.Ukathya

4.Shodashi

5.Bajpey

6.Atiratra

7.Aptoryam

Smart Yajnas: There is violence in shrauta yajnas.But it is strictly prohibited in smart yajnas.Sacrifice of animals is strictly prohibit

ed in smart yajnas.A few types of smart yajnas are these:

1.Rudrayag

2.Suryayag

3.Vishnuyag

4.Ganeshyag

5.Shaktiyag

6.Durgayag

7.Indrayag

8.Prajanyayag

9.GayatriMahayajna

10.Brahmayajna

Most of these can be performed within five,seven or eleven days.Some of these can be performed within nine days.

The main difference between shrauta and smart yajnas is there being sk

ama and nishkama.Shraut yajnas are mainly sakama but smart yajnas are nishkama.Being desireless,smart karmas yajnas are superior than sh

rauta yajnas.By desireless yajnas ,one can get rid of his sins.They get fr

uits without aspiring for it.By performing a desireless yajna,a person can take his twenty generations to devdham(heaven).

Darsh and Purnamaas Yajna: These yajnas are performed on either full

moons day or on amsvasya. In Purnamas yajna the performer has to giv

e, agni and Soma one-one oblations and in Darshyag he has to give Agni

and Indra one-one oblations.Darshyag can performed within day but purnayaag can be performed within two days.First day they to prepare fire.Next day the performer gives up meat,sleeps on floor and oath taki

ng ceremony takes place.After these initial ceremonies they can start yajna.Among the activities of yajna Samdheni mantra,oblation of ghee,

counting of rishis by the consumer,initiation of god are,main.

Chaturmas Yag: These yajnas are performed in the beginning of the sea

son.Vaishvadev is performed in vasant,Varun Pravaas in mansoon seaso

n and Saak Megha is performed in hemant season.In yajnas the oblations are given to Agni,Soma, Pushan and Savita etc. and they are

appeased.In each yajna, there is provision different type of sacrifice.In

Varun Pravaas,a sheep is sacrificed.

Somayag : The important part of this yag is Pashu yag in which on the first and last day a good is sacrificed to Soma.

Bajpeya Yag :It is performed in the winter season.It is over in seventeen days.In this yajna,the three horses of the consumer,are connected to hi

s chariot and in all these four more are connected.A formal race is perf

ormed and the consumer is declaired victorious.

Rajsuya Yag : This is Soma yag.In it,invocation of Indra and Varun are d

one.All persons closed to the king, gather there.Purohit performs the y

ajna and the king is declared victorious.

Ashvamedha Yajna: This is the most important among all.Kings perform this yajna for the development of their kingdom.A horse,which is black on the front side and white on the back and a trident sign on his forehe

ad is selected.It starts on the eighth or ninth day of Falguna month.The

Is bathed in the water,worn cloths and ornaments and worshipped.Afte

r all this,by covering him by a cloth,he is cut.Along with the horse other

animals are also sacrificed.Their blood is cooked and from that blood,fa

t is prepared.

Yajnas are considered as giver of all this worldly and other worldly bless

Ings.By being pleased with the oblation and sacrifice of the yajna,the de

vatas give the consumer desired fruit.

Concept of Rna – Duty / Obligation: There is concept of

Rna in the Vedic age.To get rid of all these three rnas was the duty of all

persons.The three rnas are:

1.Devrna

2.Pitrirna

3.Rshirna

A person can get rid of Devrna by pouring in oblation in yajna.To get rid of pitrirna,a person has to procreate,so that his species will grow and th

e ancesters will be appeased.Rshirna is the debt of guru’s and rshi’s.To get rid of this,one has to teach others,the teachings of the guru,so that

It will continue to exit.It shows that in the Vedic age much emphasis was given on sense of duty.

Shreyas and Preyas :’Both the shreyas (good) and preyas (plea

sant),approach the mortal man; the wise man examines them thorough ly and discriminates between the two; the wise man prefers the good to the pleasant,but the ignorant man chooses the pleasant for the sake

of this body through averice and attachment (for getting and keeping)4’

This verse from Kathopanisd gives in nutshell the theme of shreas and p

reyas.To realize the Self one has to control the sense-organs through hi

s mind and direct the mind to the supramental imperishable orders of transcendenta l experience ,by avoiding the distractions of the

hundred nerves that pervade through one’s brain and subject one to death.The wise man should restrain speech in his mind and mind in the

4.Kathopanishad – Valli – 2 ,Verse -2

intellect and intellect in the Great Self and the Great Self into the Peaceful Atman.5

The objects of senses are higher than the senses,the mind is higher than both and higher than mind is the Great Self.And finally higher tha

N the Great Self is the Unmanifest and beyond all is the Purusha.There

Is none higher than the Purusha.6

People take the easy way,they choose the’ preyas’,talking about their pet theories rather than choosing the ‘sreyas’,which involves discipline

Or even a kind of self analysis,to go beyond the surface orders of things

Those who follow the path of pleasure are bound by the cyclic processe

S of life,death and rebirth but those follow the yogic way of disciplined

Life and choose only worthy,merge into the transcendent Purusha (the

Immortality process).

5. Ibid ,Valli – 3 , verse - 13

6. Ibid , Valli – 3 , verse -10

The material objects being finite,they can never remain the same even

For a single moment and as such their combinations and patterns etern

Ally present a kaleidoscopic variety.With reference to this ever – chang

Ing pattern the thinking animal,man is called upon to make independen

T decision anew from moment to moment to ascertain his relationship

With the external.At each challenge two paths are open for us to follow

On one side we are temptingly beconed to playfully dance through a seemingly well-lit path of pleasant,but the path ultimately leads us to a

Dark cave of sorrow and endless death;and on the other side lies a quite uninviting path,ill-used ,winding and uphill but that which ultimat

Ely leads us to the sunlit pasture – lands and flowery – meadows of Eternal living and happiness.The latter path is called the path of good i.e. shreyas.

Atman – Self (and not – self) :

Waking State :In the waking state Purusha expresses itself throug

the letter A ,representing the waking experience,is wise of the outward through the different sense organs,enjoying the objects,it is called the

Vaishvanara,the universal Male,it is the first part of the integral Turiya.

Dream State : The dreame state ,on the other hand ,seems to be Considered a transition state between ‘this world’ as Brihadaranyaka te rms the waking state and the other world;the world of death,the next world where one retires in deep sleep.In the dream state Prana retires from the senses and the Purusha then constructs a’dream body’1 and

All things of the world;and so experiences plearues and pains.It seems

That impressions from this world are acted out as well as visions of the

Next world in this dreame state.Since Purusha is agent of this dream world there are no impressions remaining as in the waking state.Since the Purusha is agent of this dream world,there are no impressions rem

Aining as in the waking state.This view of the dream state is highly signi

Ficant in terms of modern thought for it seems that the Upanishadic Rs

Is have seen the transitory and subjective nature of the dream state.As is said in the Prashna,the mind is the enjoyer of dreams; it is as if all the

Senses were collected in manas where this transition world is constructed and experiences acted out purely subjectively within the

Prana kosha.The letter U, with its sound,represents the advancement and centrality of the subjective process of dream,where the individual

Enjoys the subjective process through the sense organs centrally orient

Ed.It is called Taijasa,the exquisite,the brilliant,the luminous mind ;it is the second part of the integral turiya.

Deep Sleep State : The letter M with its sound,represents the m

Easure and finality.It is nothing but the condition of profound sleep,the total ignorance,separated from the subjective- objective operations of

The waking consciousness and from the pure subjective processes of the dream.It is balancing or unification of the diverse consciousness into the indistinguishable mass consciousness (prajnana ghana) .It is ca

Lled the Prajna, the third part of the integral Turiya,O M.

Thus ,just as the dream state is a freeing of Purusha from the anna level,with its requirements of action binding the Purusha,into a level,of

Prana where it is self-creative of its objects,so the deep sleep state is a dropping the activity of prana and manas to a level to retire into its own nature of bliss and self- effulgence

Turiyavastha : The transcendent form of the self is in the fourth or turiya state,beyond the triadic experiential processes of waking,dream

And deep sleep.This transcendent ,fourth state ,which is conscious exite

Ntiality ,complexity and possibility is signified by a symbolical sound OM ,which is the soundless as transcending the apparent sounds signified by the three letters A U M.The letter A stands for the sound that governs the waking experience,where the sound is gross;a contrast

Is signified by the subtle sound U ,indicating the processes that that governs the dream-experiences.There is final sound in the apparent empirical sphere,which is not exactly a sound but balancing process,a kind of measurement,which is signified by the symbolical letter M ,repr

Esenting the processes that are of the deep-sleep.The detail of this typ

E of experiencial processes are in Mandukya, Mundaka and other Upan

Ishads,each clarifying its position differently with some novelties.The

Upanishads exceed both subjectivism and objectivism by a process beyond both.According to Yajnavalkya waking,dreaming and dream

less sleep are not His states but those only of the finite self.He is ev

er knowing,all comprehensive.In Him,all things and beings exit for ev

er and nothing perishes.

Brahman : The etymology of ‘Brahman’ goes back to a pre-Aryan pa

St according to Muller 7.Its origin has variously been assigned to ‘prayer

(Brh),’growth’ and ‘welfare’,or ‘force’ as manifested in nature. Deussen also assigns a primary meaning ‘prayer’.Muller himself carries the origi

n back to ‘word’ (Brh,Brhaspasti ),but he admits the meaning of ‘Brah

man’ to be prayer and secondarily to grow or break forth.8

Brahman is the Ultimate Reality,whether created or uncreated,person

al or impersonal.Brahman is the source, the underlying reality,as well as indefinable and unknowable.

Saguna and Nirguna Brahman : The Upanishadic philosophers describe

Brahman as having two aspects: Saguna and Nirguna.When Brahman becomes conditioned by the upadhi of Maya,it is called Saguna Brahman.Nirguna Brahman is devoid of all qualifying characteristics.Nir

guna Brahman is also called the Supreme Brahman(para-Brahman),while Saguna is called apara Brahman.

Saguna Brahman is called Ishvara because.He is all powerful,the Ruler of the entire universe.The seers say ,’that all created objects,and the all

powerful Maya as well as are under His control.Under His control the su

n,the moon and the planets perform their allotted functions.Because of

His power a moral order controls the universe as well as man’s life.

Immanent and Transcendent:Brahman without any external compulsion,assumes the upadhi of Maya and appears as the universe and its creator.Thus,He becomes immanent in the universe,from the relative standpoints.The immanent Brahman dwells in the universe.The Upanishadic passages describing the Immanent Brahman show a pantheistic trend of thought.Brahman has the universe.But He doesn’t exhaust Himself in the universe.Brahman in His own nature remains transcendent.

He is the source of all;and He is that from which all things originate and in which they finally disappear.As in the Chhandogya Upanishad,it is described as ‘Tajjalan’- as that (tat) from which the world arises ( ja)into

Which it returns (la) and by which it is supported and it lives (an).In the Taittiriya Upanishad, Brahman is defined as that from which all these beings are born,by which they live,and into which they are reabsorbed.

He is the fountain of all blessed qualities and the consummation of such divine attributes as power strength,glory,knowledge and virility.

Efficient and Material Cause : The Upanishdic philosophers make it clear that Brahman is not only the operative cause of the universe,but also its material cause;i.e.,that the universe depends on Brahman not only for its energizing power but also for its very substance.Thus the Universe with all its diversity depends for its matter as its form on Him.The early cosmogonies always proceed by saying that Brahman(Atman) existed alone at the beginning and then created the world out of Himself.They do not recognize a second Principle existing side by side with the Creator and providing Him with the materials necessary for creation.Accordingly,they picture creation predominantly as an emanation rather than as a construction out of given elements.As a spider might come out with his thread,as small sparks come forth from fire,even so from his Soul come forth all vital energies (prana) all worlds,all gods all gods ,all beings.

Thus it is clear that the Brahman is the material cause as well as the efficient cause of the universe.So He is the essence of all things and everything of the world is dependent on Him.

Karma , Samsara and Moksha :

Brahman is not only perfect Being but also perfect Bliss.There is no gain greater than that of Brahman,no bliss

Or knoeledge better than the bliss or knowledge of it.The knowledge of Brahman is the summum bonum,param purusartha of life.

Mukti is derived from tha root ‘muc’ meaning ‘to let go’,’to discharge’,

‘to release’,it signifies in the first instance deliverance and release from pain and penalties of any kind.The concept of mukti has two sides:

1.A negative side viz. having got loose from or rid of

2.A positive side,general sense of expanded outlook,realization of God in man.It is realization of our own nature and not the acquisition of anything that we do not possess already.

To attain this goal ,the only thing important is to caste off the veil of ignorarance.Identification of self with body is the root cause of all miser

ies.In Moksha,man transcends this sense. Brahman within and Brahman outside is the same.The meeting point of these two is in man and the ultimate values of the one transcendental,real object of inquiry and realization is to be found in the innermost recess of the heart by restoring to moral,purity devotion and spiritual contemplation.Man becomes Brahman.

Types of Liberation : The final knowledge or Brahmakaravritti no doubt liberates the body-bound self into boundless Self –vision and consciousness of freedom

But this does not always coinside with the disappearance of the body.This is deliverance in life i.e. jivanmukti.Jivanmukta is liber

ated while yet in embodiment condition.Videhamukti is the final

release which is obtained after death.

The body continues to reap the fruit until it expires but no new actions are accumulated.Prarabdha karma does not literally come to an end only sancita and agami karmas are nullified and not prarabha.Prarabdh a karma is exhausted only by bhoga.Prarabdha karma is the life force w

hich is bound to work itself and is exhausted only after it has discharge

d its effect on living realiser.Self – realization can destroy sancita karma

But prarabdha karma which has already borne effects cannot be eliminated.The jnanin is free from any possibility of incurring new cir

cle of karma but he is living on fructifying karma.

The jivanmukta understands that he is neither body nor organ,he is neither manas nor buddhi nor prana as all these are material,how can a

conscious atman become material. Since his egoism is over,he is beyond prarabdha.Prarabddha karma is exhausted only by bhoga .

Jivanmukta will be a law unto himself.The code of ordinary morality ,nay even Veda will cease to bind him.He will rise above dharma and adharma alike because both lead to bondage and transmigration.He will not be affected by praise and blame.Morality is the condition of his existence as he is beyond sin.He resolves the multiplicity of the world into unity,reduces the duality of soul a non-soul mind and matter hich etc.into pure and simple essence i.e. consciousness.He is free from the bondage of transmigration.A jivanmukta is never attracted to the worldly allurements as his samskaras are destroyed. Theories of Creation:According to Shankara,the significance of the process of creation is in propounding the identity of Jiva and Brahman.That is why we don’t find any certain process of creation in the Vedas as well as in the Upanishads.The view of the universe,in the Taittiriya Upanishad is a development of cyclic process within cycles.The five-fold concentric processes or sheaths are : material,vital,mental,intellectual and blissful.Each process is a continuum,transcendentally projected (sheath) – having triadic expressions of emergence,sustenance and disappearance,from the existing,to a higher order,which also is triadic,in similar aspects,with a drive towards a transcendent higher order.The end- process of the apparent orders is to the Ananda – maya – kosha,which is finally grounded in a mystic way in the supremely transcendent process of the Brahman,or pure existentiality.

These transcendent experiential processes,from the basic order of materiality to the transcendent order of bliss-were revealed by Varun to his son Bhrigu,not directly,but only when he had performed austerities,in each stage of knowing the different orders of experiential processes,from the material order.First,Bhrigu was made to understand what is a food,which is an expression of the material order.It is like the seed from which everything is born,and being born,everything grows by food,and finally,on decease,becomes food for other creatures which feed upon it.Now there is a second,or an inner process,which is other than this basic process,which is provided by food.It is made of the vital staff called prana.The core process of the food is sustained by the vital process,so the vital process,in a subtle way,envelops the basic food-process.Beyond the vital process,there is the subtle mental process.The mental process is sustained by the supra-mental process of Vijnana and Vijnana again by the further process of Ananda or Blissful process.There is a limit indicated in the apparent order in Ananda but really it is supported by an unlimited transcendent process which is Brahman.The limitation of the apparent order does not suggest the limitation of the transcendental order.hence there are further deliberations on the transcendent background of Ananda.The transcendent Brahman,being finally inexplicable through our restricted understanding is described both as knowledge and ignorance.He became knoeledge and He became ignorance.He became Truth and He became falsehood.It is dual or two-dimentional process and possibility,with a transcendent core in the Unmanifest as a final control or force.

In Prashna Upanishad Pippalad says that the eternal father desired children,therefore,he put forth his energy and by the heat of his energy he produced twin creatures-Prana,the life who is male and rayi ,the matter,who is female.These,He said,shall make for me children of many natures.But in this decision,he did not totally exhaust Himself,He retained His integrality.

As in Prashna Upanishad the creative process here is a self-creative process.It is a comprehensive creative process, in four orders of the :

1.Ambhas,or the outer space beyond the heavens of the

2.Marici,or the rays of the sun or the sky,of the

3.Mara,or the ground of death or the earth,and of the

4.Apas or waters.

The creative control of the different spheres is through the ‘World-Guardians’,each having special functions.The whole process of creation is of a directed controlled activity,by an entrance into or by effecting a split through the eyes,through the mind,through the space,accounting for the emergence of the three orders of psychic-cosmic processes of waking,dreaming and deep sleep.In this process,was discerned a transcendent seeing (idam-dra);when shortened,it is Indra.